The Usa Patriot Act And The Homeland Security Act

September 11, 2001 is a date that will live on forever in American history, much like the date of December 7, 1941. As President Franklin D. Roosevelt stated it is a date, which will live in infamy. The fear and the need to protect the country and its citizens from future terrorist attacks resulted in the U.S. Government to enact two different policies. The â€Å"Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorist Act (also known as the USA PATRIOT Act) and the Homeland Security Act. Many individual feel that these two policies have infringed the rights of the American people, while others believe that these infringements are a necessity to ensure the safety of the people. This paper will explore if in fact these two policies are unreasonably and unjustly infringing on the rights of the American People, and how it effect the social justice system in America The USA PATRIOT Act was signed into law October 26, 2001, a littl e more then a month after the horrific attacks of 9/11; the Homeland Security Act was signed into law thirteen months later on November 25, 2002. The purpose of the USA PATRIOT ACT was to create the process that the Government and its organizations uses to investigate terrorists that are currently living within the Unites States borders and abroad. The Homeland Security Act was created to consolidate over 20 different federal organizations into the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). ThisShow MoreRelatedThe Patriot Act And Homeland Security Act Of 20021329 Words   |  6 Pagesnation’s security form terrorist attack and upgrading its ability to search for, identify, and eliminate terrorist threats at homes and international. Two of the most important and far reaching laws to come from the political and legislative action for the fall were the Uniting and Strengthening Americas by Providing Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001(USA Patriot Act ) and the Homeland Security Act of 2002. While the USA Patriot Act and Homeland Security Act of 2002Read MoreTerrorism : A Global Issue Essay1749 Words   |  7 Pagesgoodbye, the thought of losing them, or our lives to acts of terrorism, is typically not one to cross our minds. On September 11, 2001, this mere thought became the reality for many families. The eleventh of September will forever be remembered as the date a terrorist organization, known as al-Qaeda, attacked the United States killing thousands of innocent people. The al-Qaeda organization have exposed vulnerabilities in the United States’ homeland security. 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When the two hijacked planes crashed into the twin towers located in the middle of New York City the government woke up fro m its sleep that day. The security in the U.S. did a complete turnaround and the USA Patriot Act was born. U.S. Government after 9\11 Since the attack on American soil the government issued the USA Patriot Act. This was created to deter and punish terrorist acts in and around theRead More The Patriot Act Essay1684 Words   |  7 PagesThe Patriot Act After the terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001 our country underwent a change that has drastically affected the fundamental values that our founding fathers instilled in this country. Since that tragic day in September the aftermath of the attacks has started to implicate our Civil Liberties that in this country we hold so dear. Just 45 days after the September 11 attacks, with virtually no debate, Congress passed the USA Patriot Act on October 5th, 2001. 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These attacks were a reminder that even though this country has been leading the way in medicine, technology, and the global economy, there are those who want nothing more than to see us crumble like the Roman Empire. Due to this terrifying realization, the U.S. Government has created new agencies and intelligence centers, such as the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and National CounterRead MoreCongress And The Agencies : The National Emergency Act1244 Words   |  5 Pagesresponse to emergencies. These statutes have been separated into three separate categories. The National Emergency Act is the first actually written law that outlined the power that the executive branch (President of the United States) had when an emergency requiring the federal government’s intervention has happened. This is the first statute. Since its creation, the National Emergency Act has outlined the process in which the president must take to actually declare an emergency. During the 1970’s is

Symbolism Of Shakespeare s The Eyes Of Doctor

The first device you notice Fitzgerald uses is symbolism. The two most important symbols the author uses is the image of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg s eyes and the green light. The eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg’s represent the eyes of God. The people believed that this billboard over the valley of ashes were the eyes of God watching over them, seeing everything. In this quote â€Å"But above the grey land and the spasms of bleak dust, which drift endlessly over it, you perceive, after a moment, the eyes of Doctor T.J. Eckleburg. The eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg are blue and gigantic- their retinas are one yard high. They look out of no face, but instead, from a pair of enormous yellow spectacles which pass over a nonexistent nose†¦But his eyes, dimmed a little by many paintless days under sun and rain, brood on over the solemn dumping ground.†, proves itself in the book with two characters, Myrtle and George, after discovering her affair with Tom Buchanan said, †Å"God knows what you’ve been doing, everything you’ve been doing. You may fool me, but you can’t fool God!† proving that the eyes represent God. Next, the Green Light. â€Å"He stretched out his arms toward the dark water in a curious way, and, far as I was from him, I could have sworn he was trembling. Involuntarily I glanced seaward – and distinguished nothing except a single green light, minute and far away†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This is talking about and representing Gatsby s relationship with Daisy, at the simplest level. 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Tsunami and Love Canal Free Essays

A  tsunami  (‘harbor wave’) or  tidal wave  is a series of water waves (called a  tsunami wave train) caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, usually an ocean, but can occur in  large lakes. Tsunamis are a frequent occurrence in Japan; approximately 195 events have been recorded. Due to the immense volumes of water and energy involved, tsunamis can devastate coastal regions. We will write a custom essay sample on Tsunami and Love Canal or any similar topic only for you Order Now Earthquakes,  volcanic eruptions  and other  underwater explosions  (including detonations of underwater  nuclear devices), landslides  and other  mass movements,  meteorite ocean impacts or similar impact events, and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The  Greek  historian  Thucydides  was the first to relate tsunami to  submarine earthquakes,  but understanding of tsunami’s nature remained slim until the 20th century and is the subject of ongoing research. Many early  geological,  geographical, and oceanographic  texts refer to tsunamis as â€Å"seismic sea waves. CHARACTERISTICS: While everyday  wind waves  have a  wavelength  (from crest to crest) of about 100  meters (330 ft) and a height of roughly 2  meters (6. 6 ft), a tsunami in the deep ocean has a wavelength of about 200  kilometers (120 mi). Such a wave travels at well over 800  kilometers per hour (500 mph), but d ue to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has amplitude of only about 1  meter (3. 3 ft). This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water. Ships rarely notice their passage. As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters become shallow,  wave shoaling  compresses the wave and its velocity slows below 80  kilometers per hour (50 mph). Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20  kilometers (12 mi) and its amplitude grows enormously, producing a distinctly visible wave. Since the wave still has such a long wavelength, the tsunami may take minutes to reach full height. Except for the very largest tsunamis, the approaching wave does not break (like a  surf break), but rather appears like a fast moving  tidal bore. Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front. When the tsunami’s wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed ‘run up’. Run up is measured in meters above a reference sea level. A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run up. About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but are possible wherever there are large bodies of water, including lakes. They are caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic explosions, and  bolides. GENERATION MECHANISMS: The principal generation mechanism (or cause) of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is usually attributed to earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, or more rarely by meteorites and nuclear tests. The waves formed in this way are then sustained by gravity. It is important to note that  tides  do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis; hence referring to tsunamis as ‘tidal waves’ is inaccurate. Seismicity generated tsunamis Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the earth’s crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. More specifically, a tsunami can be generated when  thrust faults  associated with  convergent  or destructive  plate boundaries  move abruptly, resulting in water displacement, due to the vertical component of movement involved. Movement on normal faults will also cause displacement of the seabed, but the size of the largest of such events is normally too small to give rise to a significant tsunami. |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |Drawing of  tectonic plate |Overriding plate bulges under |Plate slips, causing |The energy released produces | |boundary  before earthquake. |strain, causing tectonic uplift. |subsidence  and releasing energy |tsunami waves. | | | |into water. | Tsunamis have a small  amplitude  (wave height) offshore, and a very long  wavelength  (often hundreds of kilometers long), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300  millimeters (12 in) above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a  wave shoaling  process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas. On April 1, 1946, a magnitude-7. 8 (Richter scale)  earthqu ake  occurred near the  Aleutian Islands,  Alaska. It generated a tsunami which inundated  Hilo  on the island of Hawaii’s with a 14  meters (46 ft) high surge. The area where the  earthquake  occurred is where the  Pacific Ocean  floor is  subducting  (or being pushed downwards) under  Alaska. Examples of tsunami at locations away from  convergent boundaries  include  Storegga  about 8,000 years ago,  Grand Banks  1929,  Papua New Guinea  1998 (Tappin, 2001). The Grand Banks and Papua New Guinea tsunamis came from earthquakes which destabilized sediments, causing them to flow into the ocean and generate a tsunami. They dissipated before traveling transoceanic distances. The cause of the Storegga sediment failure is unknown. Possibilities include an overloading of the sediments, an earthquake or a release of gas hydrates (methane etc. ) The  1960 Valdivia earthquake  (Mw  9. 5) (19:11 hrs UTC),  1964 Alaska earthquake  (Mw  9. 2), and  2004 Indian Ocean earthquake  (Mw  9. 2) (00:58:53 UTC) are recent examples of powerful mega thrust  earthquakes that generated tsunamis (known as  teletsunamis) that can cross entire oceans. Smaller (Mw  4. 2) earthquakes in Japan can trigger tsunamis (called  local  and regional tsunamis) that can only devastate nearby coasts, but can do so in only a few minutes. In the 1950s, it was discovered that larger tsunamis than had previously been believed possible could be caused by giant  landslides. These phenomena rapidly displace large water volumes, as energy from falling debris or expansion transfers to the water at a rate faster than the water can absorb. Their existence was confirmed in 1958, when a giant landslide in Lituya Bay,  Alaska, caused the highest wave ever recorded, which had a height of 524 meters (over 1700 feet). The wave didn’t travel far, as it struck land almost immediately. Two people fishing in the bay were killed, but another boat amazingly managed to ride the wave. Scientists named these waves  mega tsunami. Scientists discovered that extremely large landslides from volcanic island collapses can generate  mega tsunami that can travel trans-oceanic distances. SCALES OF INTENSITY AND MAGNITUDE: As with earthquakes, several attempts have been made to set up scales of tsunami intensity or magnitude to allow comparison between different events. Intensity scales The first scales used routinely to measure the intensity of tsunami were the  Sieberg-Ambraseys scale, used in the  Mediterranean Sea  and the  Imamura-Iida intensity scale, used in the Pacific Ocean. The latter scale was modified by Soloviev, who calculated the Tsunami intensity  I  according to the formula [pic] Where  Hav  is the average wave height along the nearest coast. This scale, known as the  Soloviev-Imamura tsunami intensity scale, is used in the global tsunami catalogues compiled by the  NGDC/NOAA  and the Novosibirsk Tsunami Laboratory as the main parameter for the size of the tsunami. Magnitude scales The first scale that genuinely calculated a magnitude for a tsunami, rather than an intensity at a particular location was the ML scale proposed by Murty Loomis based on the potential energy. Difficulties in calculating the potential energy of the tsunami mean that this scale is rarely used. Abe introduced the  tsunami magnitude scale  Mt, calculated from, [pic] where  h  is the maximum tsunami-wave amplitude (in m) measured by a tide gauge at a distance  R  from the epicenter,  a,  b  Ã‚  D  are constants used to make the Mt  scale match as closely as possible with the moment magnitude scale. WARNINGS AND PREDICTIONS: Drawbacks can serve as a brief warning. People who observe drawback (many survivors report an accompanying sucking sound), can survive only if they immediately run for high ground or seek the upper floors of nearby buildings. In 2004, ten-year old  Tilly Smith  of  Surrey,  England, was on  Maikhao beach  in  Phuket,  Thailand  with her parents and sister, and having learned about tsunamis recently in school, told her family that a tsunami might be imminent. Her parents warned others minutes before the wave arrived, saving dozens of lives. She credited her geography teacher, Andrew Kearney. In the  2004 Indian Ocean tsunami  drawback was not reported on the African coast or any other eastern coasts it reached. This was because the wave moved downwards on the eastern side of the fault line and upwards on the western side. The western pulse hit coastal Africa and other western areas. A tsunami cannot be precisely predicted, even if the magnitude and location of an earthquake is known. Geologists,  oceanographers, and seismologists  analyze each earthquake and based on many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning. However, there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and automated systems can provide warnings immediately after an earthquake in time to save lives. One of the most successful systems uses bottom pressure sensors that are attached to buoys. The sensors constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water column. This is deduced through the calculation: [pic] Where, P  = the overlying  pressure  in Newton per meter square, ? = the  density  of the  seawater = 1. 1 x 103  kg/m3, g  = the  acceleration due to gravity = 9. 8 m/s2  and h  = the height of the water column in meters. Hence for a water column of 5,000 m depth the overlying pressure is equal to [pic] Or about 5500  tonnes-force  per square meter. Regions with a high tsunami risk typically use  tsunami warning systems  to warn the population before the wave reaches land. On the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs indicate evacuation routes. In Japan, the community is well-educated about earthquakes and tsunamis, and along the Japanese shorelines the tsunami warning signs are reminders of the natural hazards together with a network of warning sirens, typically at the top of the cliff of surroundings hills. The  Pacific Tsunami Warning System  is based in  Honolulu,  Hawaii. It monitors Pacific Ocean seismic activity. A sufficiently large earthquake magnitude and other information trigger a tsunami warning. While the seduction zones around the Pacific are seismically active, not all earthquakes generate tsunami. Computers assist in analyzing the tsunami risk of every earthquake that occurs in the Pacific Ocean and the adjoining land masses. |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |Tsunami hazard sign |A tsunami warning sign on |The monument to the victims of |Tsunami memorial | |atBamfield,  British Columbia |a  seawall  in  Kamakura, Japan, |tsunami at Laupahoehoe,  Hawaii |inKanyakumari  beach | | |2004. | | | As a direct result of the Indian Ocean tsunami, a re-appraisal of the tsunami threat for all coastal areas is being undertaken by national governments and the United Nations Disaster Mitigation Committee. A tsunami warning system is being installed in the Indian Ocean. Computer models can predict tsunami arrival, usually within minutes of the arrival time. Bottom pressure sensors relay information in real time. Based on these pressure readings and other seismic information and the seafloor’s shape and coastal  topography, the models estimate the amplitude and surge height of the approaching tsunami. All Pacific Rim countries collaborate in the Tsunami Warning System and most regularly practice evacuation and other procedures. In Japan, such preparation is mandatory for government, local authorities, emergency services and the population. Some zoologists hypothesize that some animal species have an ability to sense subsonic  Rayleigh waves  from an earthquake or a tsunami. If correct, monitoring their behavior could provide advance warning of earthquakes, tsunami etc. However, the evidence is controversial and is not widely accepted. There are unsubstantiated claims about the Lisbon quake that some animals escaped to higher ground, while many other animals in the same areas drowned. The phenomenon was also noted by media sources in  Sri Lanka  in the  2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. [21][22]  It is possible that certain animals (e. g. ,  elephants) may have heard the sounds of the tsunami as it approached the coast. The elephants’ reaction was to move away from the approaching noise. By contrast, some humans went to the shore to investigate and many drowned as a result. It is not possible to prevent a tsunami. However, in some tsunami-prone countries some  earthquake engineering  measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan  built many tsunami walls of up to 4. 5  metres (15 ft) to protect populated coastal areas. Other localities have built  floodgates  and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunami often overtop the barriers. For instance, the  Okushiri, Hokkaido tsunami  which struck  Okushiri Island  of  Hokkaido  within two to five minutes of the  earthquake on July 12, 1993  created waves as much as 30  metres (100 ft) tall—as high as a 10-story building. The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life. [23] Natural factors such as shoreline tree cover can mitigate tsunami effects. Some locations in the path of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami escaped almost unscathed because trees such as  coconut palms  and  mangroves  absorbed the tsunami’s energy. In one striking example, the village of  Naluvedapathy  in India’s  Tamil Nadu  region suffered only minimal damage and few deaths because the wave broke against a forest of 80,244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002 in a bid to enter the  Guinness Book of Records. [24]  Environmentalists have suggested tree planting along tsunami-prone seacoasts. Trees require years to grow to a useful size, but such plantations could offer a much cheaper and longer-lasting means of tsunami mitigation than artificial barriers. The Love Canal chemical waste dump In 1920 Hooker Chemical had turned an area in Niagara Falls into a municipal and chemical disposal site. In 1953 the site was filled and relatively modern methods were applied to cover it. A thick layer of impermeable red clay sealed the dump, preventing chemicals from leaking out of the landfill. A city near the dumpsite wanted to buy it for urban expansion. Despite the warnings of Hooker the city eventually bought the site for the meager amount of 1 dollar. Hooker could not sell for more, because they did not want to earn money off a project so clearly unwise. The city began to dig to develop a sewer, damaging the red clay cap that covered the dumpsite below. Blocks of homes and a school were built and the neighborhood was named Love Canal. Love Canal seemed like a regular neighborhood. The only thing that distinguished this neighborhood from other was the strange odors that often hung in the air and an unusual seepage noticed by inhabitants in their basements and yards. Children in the neighborhood often fell ill. Love Canal families regularly experienced miscarriages and birth defects. Lois Gibbs, an activist, noticed the high occurrence of illness and birth defects in the area and started documenting it. In 1978 newspapers revealed the existence of the chemical waste dump in the Love Canal area and Lois Gibbs started petitioning for closing the school. In August 1978, the claim succeeded and the NYS Health Department ordered closing of the school when a child suffered from chemical poisoning. When Love Canal was researched over 130 pounds of the highly toxic carcinogenic TCDD, a form of dioxin, was discovered. The total of 20. 00 tons of waste present in the landfill appeared to contain more than 248 different species of chemicals. The waste mainly consisted of pesticide residues and chemical weapons research refuse. The chemicals had entered homes, sewers, yards and creeks and Gibbs decided it was time for the more than 900 families to be moved away from the location. Eventually President Carter provided funds to move all the families to a safer area. Hooker†™s parent company was sued and settled for 20 million dollars. Despite protests by Gibbs’s organization some of the houses in Love Canal went up for sale some 20 years later. The majority of the houses are on the market now and the neighborhood may become inhabited again after 20 years of abandonment. The houses in Love Canal are hard to sell, despite a renaming of the neighborhood. It suffered such a bad reputation after the incident that banks refused mortgages on the houses. None of the chemicals have been removed from the dumpsite. It has been resealed and the surrounding area was cleaned and declared safe. Hooker’s mother company paid an additional 230 million dollars to finance this cleanup. They are now responsible for the management of the dumpsite. Today, the Love Canal dumpsite is known as one of the major environmental disasters of the century. **** Love Canal is an abandoned canal in Niagara County, New York, where a huge amount of toxic waste was buried. The waste was composed of at least 300 different chemicals, totaling an estimated 20,000 metric tons. The existence of the waste was discovered in the 1970s when families living in homes subsequently built next to the site found chemical wastes seeping up through the ground into their basements, forcing them to eventually abandon their homes. Love Canal was used from the 1940s through the 1950s by the Hooker Chemical Company and the city of Niagara Falls, among others, to dispose of their hazardous and municipal wastes and other refuse. The canal was surrounded by clay and was thought at the time to be a safe place for disposal—and, in fact, burying chemicals in the canal was probably safer than many other methods and sites used for chemical disposal at the time. In 1953, the Niagara Falls Board of Education bought the land-fill for $1 and constructed an elementary school with playing fields on the site. Roads and sewer lines were added and, in the early 1970s, single-family homes were built adjacent to the site. Following a couple of heavy rains in the mid-1970s, the canal flooded and chemicals were observed on the surface of the site and in the basements of houses abutting the site. Newspaper coverage, investigations by the State of New York and by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, combined with pressure from the district’s U. S. congressional representative and outrage on the part of local residents, led to the declaration of a health emergency involving â€Å"great and imminent peril to the health of the general public. Ultimately, in August, 1978, a decision was made by Governor Hugh Carey, supported by the White House, to evacuate the residents and purchase 240 homes surrounding the site. Shortly thereafter, the residents of nearby homes that did not immediately abut the site also became concerned about their health and conducted a health survey that purported to show an increase in the occurrence of various diseases and problems such as birth defects and miscarriages, which were attributed to chemical exposures. A great controversy ensued over whether the observations were real or reflected normal rates of such problems, and whether chemical exposures had, in fact, occurred. Eventually, political pressure resulted in families being given an opportunity to leave and have their homes purchased by the State. About 70 homes remained occupied in 1989 by families who chose not to move. The controversy at Love Canal followed on the heels of the heightened awareness that occurred in the 1960s about environmental contamination, and it contributed to public and regulatory concern about hazardous wastes, waste disposal, and disclosure of such practices. Such concerns led Congress to pass the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in 1976, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), also known as the Superfund bill, in 1980. When CERCLA was passed, few were aware of the extent of the problem potentially created by years of inappropriate or inadequate hazardous waste disposal practices. Since implementing CERCLA, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency has identified more than 40,000 potentially contaminated â€Å"Superfund† sites. The Gulf War In August 1990 Iraqi forces invaded Kuwait, starting the Gulf War in which an allegiance of 34 nations worldwide was involved. In January  1991  of the Gulf War, Iraqi forces committed two environmental disasters. The first was a major oil spill 16 kilometers off the shore of Kuwait by dumping oil from several tankers and opening the valves of an offshore terminal. The second was the setting fire to 650 oil wells in Kuwait. The apparent strategic goal of the action was to prevent a potential landing by US Marines. American air strikes on January 26 destroyed pipelines to prevent further spillage into the Gulf. This however seemed to make little difference. Approximately one million tons of crude oil was already lost to the environment, making this the largest oil spill of human history. In the spring of 1991, as many as 500 oil wells were still burning and the last oil well was not extinguished until a few months later, in November. The oil spills did considerable damage to life in the Persian Gulf (see picture). Several months after the spill, the poisoned waters killed 20. 000 seabirds and had caused severe damage to local marine flora and fauna. The fires in the oil wells caused immense amounts of soot and toxic fumes to enter the atmosphere. This had great effects on the health of the local population and biota for several years. The pollution also had a possible impact on local weather patterns. How to cite Tsunami and Love Canal, Papers Tsunami and Love Canal Free Essays A  tsunami  (‘harbor wave’) or  tidal wave  is a series of water waves (called a  tsunami wave train) caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, usually an ocean, but can occur in  large lakes. Tsunamis are a frequent occurrence in Japan; approximately 195 events have been recorded. Due to the immense volumes of water and energy involved, tsunamis can devastate coastal regions. We will write a custom essay sample on Tsunami and Love Canal or any similar topic only for you Order Now Earthquakes,  volcanic eruptions  and other  underwater explosions  (including detonations of underwater  nuclear devices), landslides  and other  mass movements,  meteorite ocean impacts or similar impact events, and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. The  Greek  historian  Thucydides  was the first to relate tsunami to  submarine earthquakes,  but understanding of tsunami’s nature remained slim until the 20th century and is the subject of ongoing research. Many early  geological,  geographical, and oceanographic  texts refer to tsunamis as â€Å"seismic sea waves. CHARACTERISTICS: While everyday  wind waves  have a  wavelength  (from crest to crest) of about 100  meters (330 ft) and a height of roughly 2  meters (6. 6 ft), a tsunami in the deep ocean has a wavelength of about 200  kilometers (120 mi). Such a wave travels at well over 800  kilometers per hour (500 mph), but d ue to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has amplitude of only about 1  meter (3. 3 ft). This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water. Ships rarely notice their passage. As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters become shallow,  wave shoaling  compresses the wave and its velocity slows below 80  kilometers per hour (50 mph). Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20  kilometers (12 mi) and its amplitude grows enormously, producing a distinctly visible wave. Since the wave still has such a long wavelength, the tsunami may take minutes to reach full height. Except for the very largest tsunamis, the approaching wave does not break (like a  surf break), but rather appears like a fast moving  tidal bore. Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front. When the tsunami’s wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed ‘run up’. Run up is measured in meters above a reference sea level. A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run up. About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but are possible wherever there are large bodies of water, including lakes. They are caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic explosions, and  bolides. GENERATION MECHANISMS: The principal generation mechanism (or cause) of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is usually attributed to earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, or more rarely by meteorites and nuclear tests. The waves formed in this way are then sustained by gravity. It is important to note that  tides  do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis; hence referring to tsunamis as ‘tidal waves’ is inaccurate. Seismicity generated tsunamis Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the earth’s crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. More specifically, a tsunami can be generated when  thrust faults  associated with  convergent  or destructive  plate boundaries  move abruptly, resulting in water displacement, due to the vertical component of movement involved. Movement on normal faults will also cause displacement of the seabed, but the size of the largest of such events is normally too small to give rise to a significant tsunami. |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |Drawing of  tectonic plate |Overriding plate bulges under |Plate slips, causing |The energy released produces | |boundary  before earthquake. |strain, causing tectonic uplift. |subsidence  and releasing energy |tsunami waves. | | | |into water. | Tsunamis have a small  amplitude  (wave height) offshore, and a very long  wavelength  (often hundreds of kilometers long), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300  millimeters (12 in) above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a  wave shoaling  process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas. On April 1, 1946, a magnitude-7. 8 (Richter scale)  earthqu ake  occurred near the  Aleutian Islands,  Alaska. It generated a tsunami which inundated  Hilo  on the island of Hawaii’s with a 14  meters (46 ft) high surge. The area where the  earthquake  occurred is where the  Pacific Ocean  floor is  subducting  (or being pushed downwards) under  Alaska. Examples of tsunami at locations away from  convergent boundaries  include  Storegga  about 8,000 years ago,  Grand Banks  1929,  Papua New Guinea  1998 (Tappin, 2001). The Grand Banks and Papua New Guinea tsunamis came from earthquakes which destabilized sediments, causing them to flow into the ocean and generate a tsunami. They dissipated before traveling transoceanic distances. The cause of the Storegga sediment failure is unknown. Possibilities include an overloading of the sediments, an earthquake or a release of gas hydrates (methane etc. ) The  1960 Valdivia earthquake  (Mw  9. 5) (19:11 hrs UTC),  1964 Alaska earthquake  (Mw  9. 2), and  2004 Indian Ocean earthquake  (Mw  9. 2) (00:58:53 UTC) are recent examples of powerful mega thrust  earthquakes that generated tsunamis (known as  teletsunamis) that can cross entire oceans. Smaller (Mw  4. 2) earthquakes in Japan can trigger tsunamis (called  local  and regional tsunamis) that can only devastate nearby coasts, but can do so in only a few minutes. In the 1950s, it was discovered that larger tsunamis than had previously been believed possible could be caused by giant  landslides. These phenomena rapidly displace large water volumes, as energy from falling debris or expansion transfers to the water at a rate faster than the water can absorb. Their existence was confirmed in 1958, when a giant landslide in Lituya Bay,  Alaska, caused the highest wave ever recorded, which had a height of 524 meters (over 1700 feet). The wave didn’t travel far, as it struck land almost immediately. Two people fishing in the bay were killed, but another boat amazingly managed to ride the wave. Scientists named these waves  mega tsunami. Scientists discovered that extremely large landslides from volcanic island collapses can generate  mega tsunami that can travel trans-oceanic distances. SCALES OF INTENSITY AND MAGNITUDE: As with earthquakes, several attempts have been made to set up scales of tsunami intensity or magnitude to allow comparison between different events. Intensity scales The first scales used routinely to measure the intensity of tsunami were the  Sieberg-Ambraseys scale, used in the  Mediterranean Sea  and the  Imamura-Iida intensity scale, used in the Pacific Ocean. The latter scale was modified by Soloviev, who calculated the Tsunami intensity  I  according to the formula [pic] Where  Hav  is the average wave height along the nearest coast. This scale, known as the  Soloviev-Imamura tsunami intensity scale, is used in the global tsunami catalogues compiled by the  NGDC/NOAA  and the Novosibirsk Tsunami Laboratory as the main parameter for the size of the tsunami. Magnitude scales The first scale that genuinely calculated a magnitude for a tsunami, rather than an intensity at a particular location was the ML scale proposed by Murty Loomis based on the potential energy. Difficulties in calculating the potential energy of the tsunami mean that this scale is rarely used. Abe introduced the  tsunami magnitude scale  Mt, calculated from, [pic] where  h  is the maximum tsunami-wave amplitude (in m) measured by a tide gauge at a distance  R  from the epicenter,  a,  b  Ã‚  D  are constants used to make the Mt  scale match as closely as possible with the moment magnitude scale. WARNINGS AND PREDICTIONS: Drawbacks can serve as a brief warning. People who observe drawback (many survivors report an accompanying sucking sound), can survive only if they immediately run for high ground or seek the upper floors of nearby buildings. In 2004, ten-year old  Tilly Smith  of  Surrey,  England, was on  Maikhao beach  in  Phuket,  Thailand  with her parents and sister, and having learned about tsunamis recently in school, told her family that a tsunami might be imminent. Her parents warned others minutes before the wave arrived, saving dozens of lives. She credited her geography teacher, Andrew Kearney. In the  2004 Indian Ocean tsunami  drawback was not reported on the African coast or any other eastern coasts it reached. This was because the wave moved downwards on the eastern side of the fault line and upwards on the western side. The western pulse hit coastal Africa and other western areas. A tsunami cannot be precisely predicted, even if the magnitude and location of an earthquake is known. Geologists,  oceanographers, and seismologists  analyze each earthquake and based on many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning. However, there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and automated systems can provide warnings immediately after an earthquake in time to save lives. One of the most successful systems uses bottom pressure sensors that are attached to buoys. The sensors constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water column. This is deduced through the calculation: [pic] Where, P  = the overlying  pressure  in Newton per meter square, ? = the  density  of the  seawater = 1. 1 x 103  kg/m3, g  = the  acceleration due to gravity = 9. 8 m/s2  and h  = the height of the water column in meters. Hence for a water column of 5,000 m depth the overlying pressure is equal to [pic] Or about 5500  tonnes-force  per square meter. Regions with a high tsunami risk typically use  tsunami warning systems  to warn the population before the wave reaches land. On the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs indicate evacuation routes. In Japan, the community is well-educated about earthquakes and tsunamis, and along the Japanese shorelines the tsunami warning signs are reminders of the natural hazards together with a network of warning sirens, typically at the top of the cliff of surroundings hills. The  Pacific Tsunami Warning System  is based in  Honolulu,  Hawaii. It monitors Pacific Ocean seismic activity. A sufficiently large earthquake magnitude and other information trigger a tsunami warning. While the seduction zones around the Pacific are seismically active, not all earthquakes generate tsunami. Computers assist in analyzing the tsunami risk of every earthquake that occurs in the Pacific Ocean and the adjoining land masses. |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |Tsunami hazard sign |A tsunami warning sign on |The monument to the victims of |Tsunami memorial | |atBamfield,  British Columbia |a  seawall  in  Kamakura, Japan, |tsunami at Laupahoehoe,  Hawaii |inKanyakumari  beach | | |2004. | | | As a direct result of the Indian Ocean tsunami, a re-appraisal of the tsunami threat for all coastal areas is being undertaken by national governments and the United Nations Disaster Mitigation Committee. A tsunami warning system is being installed in the Indian Ocean. Computer models can predict tsunami arrival, usually within minutes of the arrival time. Bottom pressure sensors relay information in real time. Based on these pressure readings and other seismic information and the seafloor’s shape and coastal  topography, the models estimate the amplitude and surge height of the approaching tsunami. All Pacific Rim countries collaborate in the Tsunami Warning System and most regularly practice evacuation and other procedures. In Japan, such preparation is mandatory for government, local authorities, emergency services and the population. Some zoologists hypothesize that some animal species have an ability to sense subsonic  Rayleigh waves  from an earthquake or a tsunami. If correct, monitoring their behavior could provide advance warning of earthquakes, tsunami etc. However, the evidence is controversial and is not widely accepted. There are unsubstantiated claims about the Lisbon quake that some animals escaped to higher ground, while many other animals in the same areas drowned. The phenomenon was also noted by media sources in  Sri Lanka  in the  2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. [21][22]  It is possible that certain animals (e. g. ,  elephants) may have heard the sounds of the tsunami as it approached the coast. The elephants’ reaction was to move away from the approaching noise. By contrast, some humans went to the shore to investigate and many drowned as a result. It is not possible to prevent a tsunami. However, in some tsunami-prone countries some  earthquake engineering  measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan  built many tsunami walls of up to 4. 5  metres (15 ft) to protect populated coastal areas. Other localities have built  floodgates  and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunami often overtop the barriers. For instance, the  Okushiri, Hokkaido tsunami  which struck  Okushiri Island  of  Hokkaido  within two to five minutes of the  earthquake on July 12, 1993  created waves as much as 30  metres (100 ft) tall—as high as a 10-story building. The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life. [23] Natural factors such as shoreline tree cover can mitigate tsunami effects. Some locations in the path of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami escaped almost unscathed because trees such as  coconut palms  and  mangroves  absorbed the tsunami’s energy. In one striking example, the village of  Naluvedapathy  in India’s  Tamil Nadu  region suffered only minimal damage and few deaths because the wave broke against a forest of 80,244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002 in a bid to enter the  Guinness Book of Records. [24]  Environmentalists have suggested tree planting along tsunami-prone seacoasts. Trees require years to grow to a useful size, but such plantations could offer a much cheaper and longer-lasting means of tsunami mitigation than artificial barriers. The Love Canal chemical waste dump In 1920 Hooker Chemical had turned an area in Niagara Falls into a municipal and chemical disposal site. In 1953 the site was filled and relatively modern methods were applied to cover it. A thick layer of impermeable red clay sealed the dump, preventing chemicals from leaking out of the landfill. A city near the dumpsite wanted to buy it for urban expansion. Despite the warnings of Hooker the city eventually bought the site for the meager amount of 1 dollar. Hooker could not sell for more, because they did not want to earn money off a project so clearly unwise. The city began to dig to develop a sewer, damaging the red clay cap that covered the dumpsite below. Blocks of homes and a school were built and the neighborhood was named Love Canal. Love Canal seemed like a regular neighborhood. The only thing that distinguished this neighborhood from other was the strange odors that often hung in the air and an unusual seepage noticed by inhabitants in their basements and yards. Children in the neighborhood often fell ill. Love Canal families regularly experienced miscarriages and birth defects. Lois Gibbs, an activist, noticed the high occurrence of illness and birth defects in the area and started documenting it. In 1978 newspapers revealed the existence of the chemical waste dump in the Love Canal area and Lois Gibbs started petitioning for closing the school. In August 1978, the claim succeeded and the NYS Health Department ordered closing of the school when a child suffered from chemical poisoning. When Love Canal was researched over 130 pounds of the highly toxic carcinogenic TCDD, a form of dioxin, was discovered. The total of 20. 00 tons of waste present in the landfill appeared to contain more than 248 different species of chemicals. The waste mainly consisted of pesticide residues and chemical weapons research refuse. The chemicals had entered homes, sewers, yards and creeks and Gibbs decided it was time for the more than 900 families to be moved away from the location. Eventually President Carter provided funds to move all the families to a safer area. Hooker†™s parent company was sued and settled for 20 million dollars. Despite protests by Gibbs’s organization some of the houses in Love Canal went up for sale some 20 years later. The majority of the houses are on the market now and the neighborhood may become inhabited again after 20 years of abandonment. The houses in Love Canal are hard to sell, despite a renaming of the neighborhood. It suffered such a bad reputation after the incident that banks refused mortgages on the houses. None of the chemicals have been removed from the dumpsite. It has been resealed and the surrounding area was cleaned and declared safe. Hooker’s mother company paid an additional 230 million dollars to finance this cleanup. They are now responsible for the management of the dumpsite. Today, the Love Canal dumpsite is known as one of the major environmental disasters of the century. **** Love Canal is an abandoned canal in Niagara County, New York, where a huge amount of toxic waste was buried. The waste was composed of at least 300 different chemicals, totaling an estimated 20,000 metric tons. The existence of the waste was discovered in the 1970s when families living in homes subsequently built next to the site found chemical wastes seeping up through the ground into their basements, forcing them to eventually abandon their homes. Love Canal was used from the 1940s through the 1950s by the Hooker Chemical Company and the city of Niagara Falls, among others, to dispose of their hazardous and municipal wastes and other refuse. The canal was surrounded by clay and was thought at the time to be a safe place for disposal—and, in fact, burying chemicals in the canal was probably safer than many other methods and sites used for chemical disposal at the time. In 1953, the Niagara Falls Board of Education bought the land-fill for $1 and constructed an elementary school with playing fields on the site. Roads and sewer lines were added and, in the early 1970s, single-family homes were built adjacent to the site. Following a couple of heavy rains in the mid-1970s, the canal flooded and chemicals were observed on the surface of the site and in the basements of houses abutting the site. Newspaper coverage, investigations by the State of New York and by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, combined with pressure from the district’s U. S. congressional representative and outrage on the part of local residents, led to the declaration of a health emergency involving â€Å"great and imminent peril to the health of the general public. Ultimately, in August, 1978, a decision was made by Governor Hugh Carey, supported by the White House, to evacuate the residents and purchase 240 homes surrounding the site. Shortly thereafter, the residents of nearby homes that did not immediately abut the site also became concerned about their health and conducted a health survey that purported to show an increase in the occurrence of various diseases and problems such as birth defects and miscarriages, which were attributed to chemical exposures. A great controversy ensued over whether the observations were real or reflected normal rates of such problems, and whether chemical exposures had, in fact, occurred. Eventually, political pressure resulted in families being given an opportunity to leave and have their homes purchased by the State. About 70 homes remained occupied in 1989 by families who chose not to move. The controversy at Love Canal followed on the heels of the heightened awareness that occurred in the 1960s about environmental contamination, and it contributed to public and regulatory concern about hazardous wastes, waste disposal, and disclosure of such practices. Such concerns led Congress to pass the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in 1976, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), also known as the Superfund bill, in 1980. When CERCLA was passed, few were aware of the extent of the problem potentially created by years of inappropriate or inadequate hazardous waste disposal practices. Since implementing CERCLA, the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency has identified more than 40,000 potentially contaminated â€Å"Superfund† sites. The Gulf War In August 1990 Iraqi forces invaded Kuwait, starting the Gulf War in which an allegiance of 34 nations worldwide was involved. In January  1991  of the Gulf War, Iraqi forces committed two environmental disasters. The first was a major oil spill 16 kilometers off the shore of Kuwait by dumping oil from several tankers and opening the valves of an offshore terminal. The second was the setting fire to 650 oil wells in Kuwait. The apparent strategic goal of the action was to prevent a potential landing by US Marines. American air strikes on January 26 destroyed pipelines to prevent further spillage into the Gulf. This however seemed to make little difference. Approximately one million tons of crude oil was already lost to the environment, making this the largest oil spill of human history. In the spring of 1991, as many as 500 oil wells were still burning and the last oil well was not extinguished until a few months later, in November. The oil spills did considerable damage to life in the Persian Gulf (see picture). Several months after the spill, the poisoned waters killed 20. 000 seabirds and had caused severe damage to local marine flora and fauna. The fires in the oil wells caused immense amounts of soot and toxic fumes to enter the atmosphere. This had great effects on the health of the local population and biota for several years. The pollution also had a possible impact on local weather patterns. How to cite Tsunami and Love Canal, Papers

Public Relations for Social Media - Culture- myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about thePublic Relations for Social Media, Culture and Society. Answer: Summary The main aim of this article named BUBBLE WRAP: Social media, public relations, culture and society by Kristin Demetrious is the identification and understanding of different ways in which public relation works in internet, mainly social media (deakin.edu.au, 2018). In this regard, another aim of this article is to explore association and cultural development related with the aspect of public relation. In order to achieve this objective of this article, the author applied broad-based socio-logical and cultural approach. Apart from this, while achieving the main objective, another major focus area of this paper was the emerging internet culture within the organization and the communication strategies used by the companies (deakin.edu.au, 2018). Public relation refers to the instruments of specialized commercial interest used in order to create self-serving public consents. Most of the people and companies feel uncomfortable in using the service of public relation as it has the capability to exploit the media and news (deakin.edu.au, 2018). It can be seen that public relation has an unusual form of system rationality and for this reason; it is still hard for the societies to accept various forms of public relation. As per this article, different suicidal networking cites sites have many benefits for the individuals and business organizations as they get the chance to work online in a primary non-business manner (deakin.edu.au, 2018). It needs to be mentioned that the massive techno-economic development like the emergence of digital networks and mobile technologies contributes towards the positive development of public relations in the business organizations. In this context, Facebook can be presented as an example as they ha ve used various aspects of public relation for their business success (deakin.edu.au, 2018). From the provided article, it can be seen that influencing the public opinion and the setting of agenda are two central objectives of public relation (deakin.edu.au, 2018). The direct relation of public relation, truth and news can be seen with the democratic framework of the countries as different means of public relation lead to the casual structural change in the public sphere. Business organizations do not face any kind of difficulties in listening on the social media due to its connection with different aspects of public relation. Most impotently, these developments in social media as well as public relation are also related with the political aspects of the countries. For this reason, there is a need for focused surveillance as core function in the process of public relations (deakin.edu.au, 2018). Thus, it can be seen that internet has a positive connection with different aspects of public relation. Apart from this, with the assistance of public relation with internet, the companies have become able to promote an artificial sense of empowerment (deakin.edu.au, 2018). Apart from this, it needs to be mentioned that culture has effects on various aspects of public relation along with consequences on the society. Hence, in order to be comfortable with the concept of public relation in this rapidly changing world, public relation needs to have three major aspects; they are community, place, friendship, and all of these needs to be connected with the internet cultures (deakin.edu.au, 2018). Reference BUBBLE WRAP: Social media, public relations, culture and society. (2018).Dro.deakin.edu.au. Retrieved 20 March 2018, from https://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30034435/demetrious-bubblewrap-2011.pdf